December 01, 2022

# Computability Part 9: LISP

In the previous post, we covered lambda calculus, a computational model underpinning functional programming. In this blog post, we'll continue down the functional programming road and cover one of the oldest programming languages still in use: LISP.

LISP was originally specified in 1958 by John McCarthy and the paper describing the language was published in 19601. It became very popular in AI research and flavors of it are still in use today.

LISP has a quite unique syntax and execution model.

## S-expression

If we are going to talk about LISP, we need to start with symbolic expressions. Symbolic expressions, or S-expressions, are defined as:

An S-expression is either

1. an atom, or
2. an expression of the form (x . y)

where x and y are S-expressions.

This very simple definition is very powerful: it allows us to represent any binary tree. Let's start with a very simple universe where the only atom is (), representing a null value. With this atom and the above definition, while we can't (easily) represent data, we can capture the shape of a binary tree. For example, the tree consisting of a root node and two leaf nodes:

can be represented as (() . ()).

The tree consisting of a root, a left leaf node, and a right node with two child leaf nodes

would be (() . (() . ())).

If we expand the definition of atom to include numbers and basic arithmetic (+, -, *, /), we can represent arithmetic expressions as S-expressions. 2 + 3

can be represented as (+ . (2 . (3 . ())).

2 * (3 + 5)

can be represented as (* . (2 . ((+ . (3 . (5 . ()))) . ()).

Note the S-expression definition only allows for values (atoms) at leaf nodes of the tree. An S-expression is either a leaf node containing a value or a non-leaf node with 2 S-expression children. That means we can't represent 2 + 3 as

but the representation we just saw is equivalent.

### Representing data

S-expressions can be used to represent data. Consider a simple list 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Much like we saw in the previous post when we looked at representing lists as lambda expressions, we can represent lists using S-expressions using a head and a tail (recursively):

can be viewed as

or (1 . (2 . (3 . (4 . (5 . ()))))).

We can also represent an associative array: instead of a value, we can represent a key-value pair as an S-expression ((key . value)), so we can represent the associative array { 1: 2, 2: 3, 3: 5 } as ((1 . 2) . ((2 . 3) . ((3 . 5) . ()))).

Historically, a non-atom S-expression in LISP is called a cons cell (from construction). Instead of head and tail, LISP uses car and cdr (standing for contents of the address register and contents of the decrement register, which are artifacts of the computer architecture first flavors of LISP were implemented in).

We just saw how we can represent trees, lists, and associative arrays using S-expressions. But S-expressions aren't limited to representing data: we can also use them to represent code.

### Representing code

We looked at how 2 + 3 would look like as an S-expression. In fact, we can represent any function call as an S-expression, where the left node of the root S-expression is the function to be called and the right subtree contains the arguments.

2 + 3 is equivalent to the function add(2, 3). So we can represent the function call add(2, 3) as the S-expression (add . (2 . (3 . ()))).

Note we can have any number of arguments as we grow the right subtrees: sum(2, 3, 4, 5) can be represented as (sum . (2 . (3 . (4 . (5 . ()))))). If we want to pass the result of another function as an argument, say sum(2, sum(3, 4), 5), we can represent this as (sum . (2 . ((sum . (3 . (4 . ()))) . (5 . ())) )).

We saw in the previous post that we can represent pretty much anything using functions. An if expression is a function if(condition, true-branch, false-branch). We can combine this with recursion to generate loops. So we have all the building blocks for a Turing-complete system.

It turns out we can represent both data and code as S-expressions. Before moving on to look at some implementation details, let's introduce some syntactic sugar.

### Syntactic sugar

Writing S-expression like this can become tedious, so let's introduce some syntactic sugar. Instead of (1 . (2 . (3 . (4 . (5 . ()))))), we can write (1 2 3 4 5). We omit some of the parenthesis, the concatenation symbol ., and the final (). By default, we concatenate on the right subtree. If we need to go down the left subtree, we add parenthesis. So instead of representing the associative array { 1: 2, 2: 3, 3: 5 } as ((1 . 2) . ((2 . 3) . ((3 . 5) . ()))), we can more succinctly represent it as ((1 2) (2 3) (3 5)), without losing any meaning.

Similarly, (add . (2 . (3 . ()))) becomes (add 2 3) and (sum . (2 . ((sum . (3 . (4 . ()))) . (5 . ())))) becomes (sum 2 (sum 3 4) 5).

In our implementation, we will represent S-expressions as lists which can contain any number of elements. This is a more succinct representation and will make our code easier to understand.

## Implementation

We can now look at implementing a small LISP. We take an input string, we parse it into an S-expression, then we evaluate the S-expression and print the result.

First, the parser: we will take a string as input, split it into tokens, then parse the tokens into an S-expression.

We will transform an input string into a list of tokens by matching it with either (, ), or a string of alphanumeric characters. We'll use a regular expression for this, then extract the matched values (using match.group()) into a list:

import re

def lex(line):
return [match.group() for match in re.finditer('$$|$$|\w+', line)]


We can now transform an input like '(add 1 (add 2 3))' into the list of tokens ['(', 'add', '1', '(', 'add', '2', '3', ')', ')'] by calling lex() on it.

We need to transform this list of tokens into an S-expression. First, we need a couple of helper functions. An atom can be either a number or a symbol. We'll create one from a token using an atom() function:

def atom(value):
try:
return int(value)
except:
return value


The other helper function will yield while the head of our token list is different than ), then pop the ) token. We'll use this while parsing to iterate over the tokens after a ( and until we find the matching ):

def pop_rpar(tokens):
while tokens[0] != ')':
yield
tokens.pop(0)


Parsing into an S-expression is now very simple:

• If we find a (, we recursively parse the following tokens until we reach the matching ).
• If we find a ), we raise an exception - this is an unmatched ).
• Otherwise we have an atom - we return the result of calling atom() on it.
def parse(tokens):
match token := tokens.pop(0):
case '(':
return [parse(tokens) for _ in pop_rpar(tokens)]
case ')':
raise Exception('Unexpected )')
case _:
return atom(token)


That's it. If we parse the input string '(add 1 (add 2 3))' using our functions - parse(lex('(add 1 (add 2 3))')) - we will get back ['add', 1, ['add', 2, 3]].

We can now take text as input and convert it into the internal representation we discussed.

The next step is to evaluate such an S-expression and return a result. We need two pieces for this: an environment which stores built-in functions and user-defined variables, and an evaluation function which takes an S-expression and processes it using the environment.

We'll start with a simple environment with built-in support for equality, arithmetic operations and list operations:

env = {
# Equality
'eq': lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 == arg2,

# Arithmetic
'add': lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2,
'sub': lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 - arg2,
'mul': lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 * arg2,
'div': lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 / arg2,

# Lists
'cons': lambda car, cdr: [car] + cdr,
'car': lambda list: list[0],
'cdr': lambda list: list[1:],
}


Our evaluation function has a few special-case handling for variable definitions, quotations, and if-expressions, and is otherwise pretty straightforward:

def eval(sexpr):
# If null or number atom, return it
if sexpr == [] or isinstance(sexpr, int):
return sexpr

# If string atom, look it up in environment
if isinstance(sexpr, str):
return env[sexpr]

match sexpr[0]:
case 'def':
env[sexpr[1]] = eval(sexpr[2])
case 'quote':
return sexpr[1]
case 'if':
return eval(sexpr[2]) if eval(sexpr[1]) else eval(sexpr[3])
case call:
return env[call](*[eval(arg) for arg in sexpr[1:]])


Our evaluation works like this:

• If we have an atom representing the empty list, we return it.
• If we have an atom that is a number, we'll return its value.
• If we have an atom that is a string (a symbol), we'll look it up in the environment and return what we find there.
• Otherwise we don't have an atom, rather an S-expression.
• If the first symbol is def, we add a definition to the environment.
• If the first symbol is quote, we return the second symbol unevaluated.
• If the first symbol is if, we evaluate the second symbol and if it is truthy, we evaluate the third symbol, otherwise the fourth symbol.
• If the first symbol doesn't denote a definition or an if expression, it is a function call: we grab the function from the environment, recursively evaluate all arguments, and pass them to the function.

We're taking a bit of a shortcut here and relying on Python's notion of truthy-ness (e.g. 0 or an empty list [] is non-truthy). If needed, we can enhance our implementation with Boolean support.

We can now implement a simple read-eval-print loop (REPL):

while line := input('> '):
try:
print(eval(parse(lex(line))))
except Exception as e:
print(f'{type(e).__name__}: {e}')


We can try a few simple commands (shown below with the corresponding output):

> (def a 40)
None
> (def b 2)
None
42
> (if a 1 0)
1
9
> (def list (cons 1 (cons 2 (cons 3 ()))))
None
> (car list)
1
> (cdr list)
[2, 3]


### Custom functions

We can extend the environment with additional functions as needed. These represent the built-in functions of our LISP interpreter. One capability we are still missing is the ability to define custom functions at runtime. Let's extend our interpreter to support that.

A function can take any number of arguments, which should become defined in the environment while the function is executing but which don't exist outside the function. For example, if we define an addition function as add(x, y), we should be able to refer to the x and y arguments inside the body of the function but not outside of it. x and y only exist within the scope of the function.

We can add scoping to our interpreter by extending our eval to take an environment as an argument instead of always referencing our env. Then when we create a new scope, we create a new environment to use.

For function definition, we will use the following syntax: (deffun function_name (arguments...) (body...)). deffun denotes a function definition. The second argument is the function name. The third is a list of parameters and the fourth is the body of the function, which is going to be evaluated in an environment where its arguments are defined.

We need a function factory:

def make_function(params, body, env):
return lambda *args: eval(body, env | dict(zip(params, args)))


This takes the parameters, body, and environment and returns a lambda which expects a list of arguments. Calling the lambda will invoke eval on the body. Note we extend the environment with a dictionary mapping parameters to arguments.

Let's update eval to use a parameterized environment and support the new deffun function definition capability:

def eval(sexpr, env=env):
# If number atom, return value
if isinstance(sexpr, int):
return sexpr

# If string atom, look it up in environment
if isinstance(sexpr, str):
return env[sexpr]

if sexpr == []:
return []

match sexpr[0]:
case 'def':
env[sexpr[1]] = eval(sexpr[2], env)
case 'deffun':
env[sexpr[1]] = make_function(sexpr[2], sexpr[3], env)
case 'quote':
return sexpr[1]
case 'if':
return eval(sexpr[2], env) if eval(sexpr[1], env) else eval(sexpr[3], env)
case call:
return env[call](*[eval(arg, env) for arg in sexpr[1:]])


Besides plumbing env through each eval call, we just added a deffun case where we use our function factory.

We can run our REPL again and try out the new capability:

> (deffun myadd (x y) (add x y))
None
5


Here is a Fibonacci implementation, using deffun and recursion:

> (deffun fib (n) (if (eq n 0) 0 (if (eq n 1) 1 (add (fib (sub n 1)) (fib (sub n 2))))))
None
> (fib 8)
21


If n is 0, return 0 else if n is 1, return 1, else recursively call fib for n - 1 and n - 2 and add the results.

We won't provide a proof of Turing-completeness but it should be obvious that the capabilities we implemented so far are sufficient to emulate, for example, a cyclic tag system like we did in the previous post with lambdas.

## Conclusions

The full implementation of our mini-LISP is here.

Peter Norvig wrote a much more detailed article describing a LISP implementation here.

LISP is a very interesting language as it uses the same representation for both data and code (for better or worse). Turns out binary trees (or trees if we use our syntactic sugar) are enough to represent both.

As we just saw, a core LISP runtime is fairly easy to implement and many of the more advanced features can be bootstrapped within the language itself.

Languages in the LISP family are called LISP dialects. Even though the language is many decades old, modern dialects are alive and thriving. For example Raket and Closure are LISP dialects.

## Summary

In this post we looked at LISP:

• S-expressions which describe binary trees.
• Representing data as S-expressions.
• Representing code as S-expressions.
• A simple LISP implementation including a lexer, parser, environment, evaluation function, and a REPL.
• Extending this with custom function definitions.

1. Original paper: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/recursive.pdf.